Press Releases (2002)
- Establishment of ''Task Force on Financial Issues'' (December 27,2002) Available in Japanese
- Members of the Working Groups of the Second Subcommittee of Financial System Council (December 27,2002) Available in Japanese
- The Review and Follow Up of the Capital Injection Bank's Plan for Restoring Sound Management (December 25,2002) Available in Japanese
- Establishment of the Special Team for Examination of Reconstruction Plans (December 24,2002) Available in Japanese
- Organization, number of staff and the budget of FSA in the fiscal year of 2003 (December 24,2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the 16th meeting of Financial System Council (December 20,2002) Available in Japanese
- Agenda of the 16th meeting of Financial System Council (December 20,2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the 11th meeting of the Second Subcommittee of Financial System Council (December 19,2002) Available in Japanese
- Agenda of the 11th meeting of Second Subcommittee of Financial System Council (December 19,2002) Available in Japanese
- Report by Subcommittee on Certified Public Accountant Regulation of Financial System Council (December 17,2002)
Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 8th meeting of the First Subcommittee of Financial System Council (December 16,2002) Available in Japanese
- Report by the First Subcommittee of Financial System Council (December 16,2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the 8th meeting of the First Subcommittee of Financial System Council (December 16,2002) Available in Japanese
- Agenda of the 8th meeting of the First Subcommittee of Financial System Council (December 16,2002) Available in Japanese
- Approval of Banking Business for China Construction Bank (December 12,2002) Available in Japanese
- New Deposit Insurance System (December 12,2002)
- Minutes of the General Meeting of Business Accounting Council (December 6,2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 23rd Meeting of the First Committee of Business Accounting Council (December 6,2002) Available in Japanese
- Report of the opinion by the Business Accounting Council (December 6,2002) Available in Japanese
- An administrative action against BNP PARIBAS Securities (Japan) Limited, Tokyo Branch (December 6,2002) Japanese version
- Joint Government & Private Mission to the U.S.(Response to the U.S. Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002) (December 3,2002) Japanese version
November
''Program for Financial Revival'' Work Schedule (November 29,2002)
Japanese version
- Statement by Heizo Takenaka, Minister for Financial Services - Work Schedule of Program for Financial Revival -(November 29,2002) Japanese version
- Advisory for financial institutions that they should report the transactions suspected of their connections with the Taliban and those associated with the Taliban as those suspected to have relations with criminal activities (additional version No.14) (November 25,2002) Available in Japanese
- Measures considered as removal of assets from the balance sheet (November 22,2002) Available in Japanese
- Trust-type schemes to revitalize Small-and Medium-Sized Enterprises (Schemes to utilize the trust function of the RCC) (November 22,2002) Available in Japanese
- Agenda of the 15th meeting of the Financial System Council (November 18,2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the 15th meeting of the Financial System Council (November 18,2002) Available in Japanese
- The Gap between Major Banks' Self-Assessment and the Result of FSA's Inspections (November 8,2002) Japanese version
October
Program for Financial Revival (October 30,2002)
Japanese version
- Advisory for financial institutions that they should report the transactions suspected of their connections with the Taliban and those associated with the Taliban as those suspected to have relations with criminal activities (additional version No.13) (October 28,2002) Available in Japanese
- Creation of a ''Hotline for credit crunch and credit withdrawal'' (October 25,2002) Available in Japanese
- Advisory for financial institutions that they should report the transactions suspected of their connections with the Taliban and those associated with the Taliban as those suspected to have relations with criminal activities (additional version No.12) (October 24,2002) Available in Japanese
- Review to Identify Non-Cooperative Countries and Territories: Increasing The Worldwide Effectiveness of Anti-Money Laundering Measures (October 22,2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 33rd Meeting of the Second Committee of Business Accounting Council (October 18,2002) Available in Japanese
- Administrative Actions against UFJ Holdings, Inc. and The Asahi Bank, Ltd. (October 18,2002) Available in Japanese
- Advisory for financial institutions that they should report the transactions suspected of their connections with the Taliban and those associated with the Taliban as those suspected to have relations with criminal activities (additional version No.11) (October 15,2002) Available in Japanese
- Agenda of the 6th meeting of the First Subcommittee of Financial System Council (October 9,2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 6th meeting of the First Subcommittee of Financial System Council (October 9,2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the 6th meeting of the First Subcommittee of Financial System Council (October 9,2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 22nd Meeting of the First Committee of Business Accounting Council (October 4,2002) Available in Japanese
- Statement by Heizo Takenaka, Minister for Financial Services - Regarding the ''Pay-off'' Problem(October 7,2002) Japanese version
- Project Team for Emergency Strategy for Financial Sector (October 3,2002) Japanese version
- Advisory for financial institutions that they should report the transactions suspected of their connections with the Taliban and those associated with the Taliban as those suspected to have relations with criminal activities (additional version No.10) (October 2,2002) Available in Japanese
September
- Agenda of the Joint Meeting of the 14th meeting of the Financial System Council and the 4th meeting of the Sectional Committee on Financial System (September 30,2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the Joint Meeting of the 14th meeting of the Financial System Council and the 4th meeting of the Sectional Committee on Financial System (September 30,2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the Joint Meeting of the 14th meeting of the Financial System Council and the 4th meeting of the Sectional Committee on Financial System (September 30,2002) Available in Japanese
- Agenda of the 5th meeting of the First Subcommittee of Financial System Council (September 30,2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 5th meeting of the First Subcommittee of Financial System Council (September 30,2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the 5th meeting of the First Subcommittee of Financial System Council (September 30,2002) Available in Japanese
- Report of the Financial System Council (September 30,2002)
- Agenda of the 2nd meeting of the Subcommittee on Certified Public Accountant Regulation of the Financial System Council (September 27,2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 2nd meeting of the Subcommittee on Certified Public Accountant Regulation of the Financial System Council (September 27,2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the 2nd meeting of the Subcommittee on Certified Public Accountant Regulation of the Financial System Council (September 27,2002) Available in Japanese
- An Administrative Disposition against AXA Life Insurance Company Limited (JAPAN) and AXA Group Life Insurance Company Limited (JAPAN) (September 25,2002) Japanese version
- Revision of the additional list version No.9(13.Sep.2002)that the members of the Taliban and those associated with the Taliban as those suspected to have relations with criminal activities (September 24,2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 32nd Meeting of the Second Committee of Business Accounting Council (September 20,2002) Available in Japanese
- An administrative action against Banc of America Securities-Japan, Inc., Tokyo Branch (September 18,2002) Japanese version
- Agenda of the 4th meeting of the First Subcommittee of Financial System Council (September 17,2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 4th meeting of the First Subcommittee of Financial System Council (September 17,2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the 4th meeting of the First Subcommittee of Financial System Council (September 17,2002) Available in Japanese
- Advisory for financial institutions that they should report the transactions suspected of their connections with the Taliban and those associated with the Taliban as those suspected to have relations with criminal activities (additional version No.9)(September 13,2002) Available in Japanese
- Agenda of the Joint Meeting of the 13th meeting of the Financial System Council and the 3rd meeting of the Sectional Committee on Financial System (September 9,2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the Joint Meeting of the 13th meeting of the Financial System Council and the 3rd meeting of the Sectional Committee on Financial System (September 9,2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the Joint Meeting of the 13th meeting of the Financial System Council and the 3rd meeting of the Sectional Committee on Financial System (September 9,2002) Available in Japanese
- Advisory for financial institutions that they should report the transactions suspected of their connections with the Taliban and those associated with the Taliban as those suspected to have relations with criminal activities (additional version No.8)(September 9,2002) Available in Japanese
Measures for Ensuring the Stability of the Payment and Settlement Functions of Financial Institutions (Executive Summary) (September 5,2002)
Japanese version
- Agenda of the Joint Meeting of the 12th meeting of the Financial System Council and the 2nd meeting of the Sectional Committee on Financial System (September 5,2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the Joint Meeting of the 12th meeting of the Financial System Council and the 2nd meeting of the Sectional Committee on Financial System (September 5,2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the Joint Meeting of the 12th meeting of the Financial System Council and the 2nd meeting of the Sectional Committee on Financial System (September 5,2002) Available in Japanese
- Partial withdrawal of the members of the Taliban and those associated with the Taliban as those suspected to have relations with criminal activities listed on the advisory for financial institutions (September 2,2002) Available in Japanese
August
- Tax Reform Request for FY 2003 by FSA (August 29,2002) Available in Japanese
- Budget Request for FY 2003 by FSA (August 29,2002) Available in Japanese
- Measures to promote mergers and other forms of consolidation of financial institutions (Provisional Translation) (August 29,2002) Japanese version
- Announcement of the opinion by the Business Accounting Council, on establishment of asset-impairment accounting standards (August 9, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the General Meeting of Business Accounting Council (August 9,2002) Available in Japanese
- Sectional Committee on Financial System, Financial System Council Establishment of a Project Team on the stability of the financial payment and settlement system (August 8,2002) Japanese version
- Program for Promoting Securities Markets Reform [Summary](Provisional Translation) (August 6,2002)
Japanese version
- The Status of Non Performing Loans as of the end of March 2002(August 2,2002) Japanese version
July
- The Review and Follow Up of the Capital Injection Bank's Plan for Restoring Sound Management (July 31,2002) Available in Japanese
- Agenda of the 11th meeting of the Financial System Council (July 31,2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 11th meeting of the Financial System Council (July 31,2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the 11th meeting of the Financial System Council (July 31,2002) Available in Japanese
Consideration to ensure the stability of the financial payment and settlement system (Provisional Transration) (July 31,2002) Japanese version
- Announcement of the "Program Year 2002 Basic Guidelines and Basic Plan for Inspections" (July 30,2002) Japanese version
The Vision for the Future of the Financial System and Policy (Summary) (July 12,2002)
Japanese version
- Partial withdrawal of the members of the Taliban and those associated with the Taliban as those suspected to have relations with criminal activities listed on the advisory for financial institutions (July 12,2002) Available in Japanese
- Measures to promote merger and consolidation of financial institutions with emphasis on regional financial institutions (Provisional Translation) (July 10,2002) Japanese version
- Minutes of the 21st Meeting of the First Committee of Business Accounting Council (July 5,2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 31st Meeting of the Second Committee of Business Accounting Council (July 4,2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the 10th Meeting of Roundtable Committee on the Vision of the Japanese Financial Systems and Policies in the Future (July 3,2002) Available in Japanese
- The Amendment to Law for Punishment of Organized Crimes, Control of Crime Proceeds and other matters (July 1,2002) Available in Japanese
- Review of the list of Non-coorperatiove Countries or Territories by FATF (July 1,2002) Available in Japanese
June
- Minutes of the 25th Meeting of Fixed Assets Committee of Business Accounting Council (June 28,2002) Available in Japanese
- An administrative action against Barclays Capital Japan Ltd., Tokyo Branch (June 27, 2002) Japanese version
- Basic Policies for Economic and Fiscal Policy Management and Structural Reform 2002 -related matters with FSA- (June 25, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the 9th Meeting of Roundtable Committee on the Vision of the Japanese Financial System and Policies in the Future (June 20, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Administrative Order Against Mizuho Financial Group (June 19, 2002) Japanese version
- An administrative action against E*TRADE Securities Co., LTD. (June 18, 2002) Available in Japanese
- An administrative action against Cosmo Securities Co., Ltd. (June 17, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 24th Meeting of Fixed Assets Committee of Business Accounting Council (June 14,2002) Available in Japanese
- The first issue of FSA Newsletter (June 14, 2002) Available in Japanese
- An administrative action against Dresdner Kleinwort Wasserstein (Japan) Ltd., Tokyo Branch (June 14, 2002) Japanese version
- Minutes of the 30th Meeting of the Second Committee of Business Accounting Council (June 13,2002) Available in Japanese
- Approval of securities relating to discretionary investment agreement -Daido Life Investment Trust Management Co., Ltd. and Inspire Asset Management Co., Ltd.- (June 11, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 20th Meeting of the First Committee of Business Accounting Council (June 7,2002) Available in Japanese
May
- Minutes of the 23th Meeting of Fixed Assets Committee of Business Accounting Council (May 31, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Financial Report of Major Banks : as of the end of March 2002 (May 24, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 29th Meeting of the Second Committee of Business Accounting Council (May 24, 2002) Available in Japanese
- The report to the Diet ; Administrative measures taken for disposal of failed financial institutions (May 24, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the 8th Meeting of Roundtable Committee on the Vision of the Japanese Financial System and Policies in the Future (May 20, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Signing of Information Sharing Arrangement with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission and the U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission (May 17, 2002) Japanese version
- The Review and follow-up of the capital injected Bank's plan for restoring sound management (May 10, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Advisory for financial institutions that they should report the transactions suspected of their connections with the Taliban and those associated with the Taliban as those suspected to have relations with criminal activities (additional version No.7) (May 9, 2002) Available in Japanese
April
- An administrative action against Sakura Friend Securities Co., Ltd. (April 26, 2002) Available in Japanese
- An administrative action against The Nichido Fire & Marine Insurance Co., Ltd. (April 25, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the 4th Meeting of Study Group on taxes related to financial markets and financial transactions (April 22, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 19th Meeting of the First Committee of Business Accounting Council (April 19, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 22th Meeting of Fixed Assets Committee of Business Accounting Council (April 12, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Measures for Developing Stronger Financial System (April 12, 2002) Japanese version
- The Outline of the Financial Reports as of the End of March 2002 Released by the Major Thirteen Banks (April 12, 2002) Japanese version
- Results of the Special Inspections on Major Banks (April 12, 2002) Japanese version
- Supplement to the Financial Inspection Manuals: Treatment of Classifications regarding Credits to Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (April 12, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Inspection Manual for investment trust management companies and investment advisory services (April 12, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 28th Meeting of the Second Committee of Business Accounting Council (April 11, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the 3rd Meeting of Study Group on taxes related to financial markets and financial transactions (April 11, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Approval of services relating to discretionary investment agreement -Yuki Management & Research Co., Ltd.- (April 5, 2002) Available in Japanese
Supervisory Guidance on Dealing with Weak Banks (April 4, 2002) Japanese version
- Summary of the 7th Meeting of Roundtable Committee on the Vision of the Japanese Financial System and Policies in the Future (April 3, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Statement by Hakuo Yanagisawa, Minister for Financial Services -Regarding the Removal of Blanket Deposit Insurance- (April 1, 2002) Japanese version
March
- Minutes of the 21th Meeting of Fixed Assets Committee of Business Accounting Council (March 29, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 18th Meeting of the First Committee of Business Accounting Council (March 29, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Approval of services relating to discretionary investment agreement -Goldman Sachs Investment Trust Management Co., Ltd., Global Cyber Investments, Inc.- (March 29, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 27th Meeting of the Second Committee of Business Accounting Council (March 28, 2002) Available in Japanese
- The decision of assignment of business from The Ishikawa Bank, Ltd. and THE CHUBU BANK, LTD. to The Bridge Bank of Japan, Limited (March 28, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Approval of demutualization of Nagoya Stock Exchange (March 28, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Approval of the establishment of insurance holding company -Millea Holdings, Inc.- (March 27, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Approval of the establishment of bank holding company -Kyushu-Shinwa Holdings, Inc.- (March 25, 2002) Available in Japanese
- The Review and follow-up of the capital injected Bank's plan for restoring sound management -Mizuho Holdings, Inc.- (March 22, 2002)Available in Japanese
- An administrative action against Merrill Lynch Japan Securities Co., Ltd. (March 20, 2002) Japanese version
- An administrative action against KBC Financial Products UK Limited., Tokyo Branch (March 20, 2002) Japanese version
- An administrative action against Okasan Securities Co., Ltd. (March 20, 2002) Japanese version
- An administrative action against Credit Suisse First Boston Securities (Japan) Ltd., Tokyo Branch (March 20, 2002) Japanese version
- Minutes of the 10th Meeting of the Second Subcommittee of Financial System Council (March 19, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the 10th Meeting of the Second Subcommittee of Financial System Council (March 19, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Agenda of the 10th Meeting of the Second Subcommittee of Financial System Council (March 19, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Approval of banking business for The Bridge Bank of Japan, Limited (March 19, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Advisory for financial institutions that they should report the transactions suspected of their connections with the Taliban and those associated with the Taliban as those suspected to have relations with criminal activities (additional version No.6) (March 15, 2002) Available in Japanese
- An address on General Policy by Hakuo Yanagisawa, Minister for Financial Services in Committee on Financial Affairs, House of Councillors (March 14, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the 2nd Meeting of Study Group on taxes related to financial markets and financial transactions (March 11, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 26th Meeting of the Second Committee of Business Accounting Council (March 8, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Result of the inspection of THE CHUBU BANK, LTD. (March 8, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Statement by Hakuo Yanagisawa, Minister for Financial Services -THE CHUBU BANK, LTD.- (March 8, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Approval of non-life insurance business for HERMES CREDIT INSURANCE PUBLIC LIMITED COMPANY (March 5, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Establishment of the Bridge Bank (March 5, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the 6th Meeting of Roundtable Committee on the Vision of the Japanese Financial System and Policies in the Future (March 4, 2002) Available in Japanese
February
- Summary of the 1st Meeting of Study Group on taxes related to financial markets and financial transactions in 2002 (February 27, 2002) Available in Japanese
- An address on General Policy by Hakuo Yanagisawa, Minister for Financial Services in Committee on Financial Affairs, House of Representatives (February 27, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Acquisition of the subsidiary (THE ASAHI BANK, LTD.) by the bank holding company (Daiwa Bank Holdings, Inc.) (February 27, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Prompt Countermeasures to Deflation (Extract: - Financial Sector) (February 27, 2002) Japanese version
- Measures based on rules of comprehensive review of compliance with regulations on short-selling (February 26, 2002) Available in Japanese
- An administrative action against Nikko Salomon Smith Barney Ltd., Tokyo Branch (February 26, 2002) Japanese version
- An administrative action against Deutsche Securities Ltd., Tokyo Branch (February 26, 2002) Japanese version
- An administrative action against Bear Stearns Japan Ltd., Tokyo Branch (February 26, 2002) Japanese version
- An administrative action against Credit Lyonnais Securities, Tokyo Branch (February 26, 2002) Japanese version
- Report by the Sectional Committee on Interest Rates Adjustment of Financial System Council (February 25, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Agenda of the 1st Meeting of Sectional Committee on Interest Rates Adjustment of Financial System Council (February 25, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 7th Meeting of Planning and Coordination Committee of Business Accounting Council (February 22, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 17th Meeting of the First Committee of Business Accounting Council (February 22, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Alteration of the maximum of interest rates of Financial Institutions (February 21, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Approval of management business of investment trust (Premier REIT Advisors Co., Ltd.) (February 19, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Report by the First Subcommittee of Financial System Council (February 15, 2002)
Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 3rd Meeting of the First Subcommittee of Financial System Council (February 15, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 20th Meeting of Fixed Assets Committee of Business Accounting Council (February 15, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the 3rd Meeting of the First Subcommittee of Financial System Council (February 15, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Agenda of the 3rd Meeting of the First Subcommittee of Financial System Council (February 15, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 25th Meeting of the Second Committee of Business Accounting Council (February 8, 2002) Available in Japanese
- An administrative action against Barclays Capital Japan Ltd., Tokyo Branch (February 6, 2002) Japanese version
- Summary of the 5th Meeting of Roundtable Committee on the Vision of the Japanese Financial System and Policies in the Future (February 4, 2002) Available in Japanese
- The Status of Non-Performing Loans held by All Banks in Japan (as of the end of September, 2001) (February 1, 2002) Japanese version
- Reform of Margin Transaction and Loan Transaction (February 1, 2002) Available in Japanese
- An administrative action against Morgan Stanley Japan Ltd., Tokyo Branch (February 1, 2002) Japanese version
January
- Counter-measures to Republic of Nauru (January 31, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Partial withdrawal of the members of the Taliban and those associated with the Taliban as those suspected to have relations with criminal activities listed on the advisory for financial institutions (January 29, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Approval of the establishment of Banks' Shareholdings Purchase Corporation (January 29, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 9th Meeting of the Second Subcommittee of Financial System Council (January 25, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the General Meeting of Business Accounting Council (January 25, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Summary of the 9th Meeting of the Second Subcommittee of Financial System Council (January 25, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Agenda of the 9th Meeting of the Second Subcommittee of Financial System Council (January 25, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 19th Meeting of Fixed Assets Committee of Business Accounting Council (January 25, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Announcement of the opinion by the Second Committee of Business Accounting Council, on the revision of Auditing Standards (January 25, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Disclosure of minutes of The Financial Reconstruction Commission (January 21, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Result of inspection of The Ishikawa Bank, Ltd. (January 18, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Authorization of Banking license to The Daiwa Trust & Banking Company, Limited (January 18, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Partial withdrawal of the members of the Taliban and those associated with the Taliban as those suspected to have relations with criminal activities listed on the advisory for financial institutions (January 17, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Advisory for financial institutions that they should report the transactions suspected of their connections with the Taliban and those associated with the Taliban as those suspected to have relations with criminal activities (additional version No.5) (January 16, 2002) Available in Japanese
- Minutes of the 16th Meeting of the First Committee of Business Accounting Council (January 11, 2002) Available in Japanese
Site Map
- Press Releases & Public RelationsPage list Open
- Press Releases
- Press Conferences
- Official Statements
- FSA Weekly Review & ACCESS FSA
- Speeches
- For Financial Users
- Others
- Archives
- Laws & RegulationsPage list Open
- Name of Laws and Regulations(PDF)
- Recent Changes (Legislation, Ordinances, Guidelines)
- Guidelines
- Financial Instruments and Exchange Act
- Financial Monitoring Policy
- Public Comment
- No-Action Letter System
- Procedures concerning Foreign Account Management Institutions